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原題目題號：DSE-2013-Essay-05
追溯並解釋1943-91年間美國與蘇聯的關係。
架構 美、蘇於1943-91年的關係曲折複雜，其中1943-62年是交惡期、1962-79年是緩和期、1979-85年是再次交惡時期、1985-91年是緩和及友好期。以下將逐一追溯並解釋。
主旨句 1943-62年是美、蘇關係的交惡期。 // 概括範疇 此時期，美、蘇兩國在經濟、軍事方面有對抗，而且有外交上時有矛盾及衝突，關係惡劣。 // 範疇一 在經濟方面，美、蘇分別推出了馬歇爾計劃(1948年)及莫洛托夫計劃(1947年)援助西歐和東歐的國家，在經濟上互相抗衡。 // 範疇二 此外，在軍事方面，美、蘇兩國更成立北約(1949年)和華沙公約(1955年)以作對抗。// 範疇三 再者，在外交方面，縱使1943-45年間美、蘇是同盟國的關係，但雙方卻在多次戰時會議中出現矛盾，例如在雅爾達會議(1945年)上，美國要求波蘭在戰後進行民主選舉，但蘇聯則反對，反映磨擦不時存在於兩國之中。 // 範疇四 更甚，兩國在此時期爆發了柏林危機(1948-49年)及古巴導彈危機(1962年)，雙方在古巴導彈危機時更幾乎爆發戰爭，關係極為惡劣。 // 小結 可見，此時期是美、蘇關係的衝突期。
主旨句 意識形態差異及戰後問題的分歧使雙方關係交惡。 // 原因一 意識形態方面，由於美國奉行資本主義，提倡自由、民主及人權等思想，故對蘇聯的專制統治感到不滿。同時，奉行共產主義的蘇聯也認為資本主義是資本階級剝削無產階級的制度，因此反對資本主義。基於意識形態的差異，使美、蘇雙方互相批評、猜忌，並且作出對抗的行為，以保障己方的安穩，如美國及蘇聯於國共內戰(1946-49年)中分別支持國民黨及共產黨作戰，使美、蘇形成敵對狀況，關係惡劣。 // 原因二 此外，戰後問題的分歧亦使雙方關係疏離，如於討論德國的議題上，美國希望保持德國的統一，以有利貿易及經濟的發展，但蘇聯則認為強大和統一的德國對蘇聯西邊構成威脅，故反對，終使兩國往後因德國問題而出現多次衝突，關係交惡。
1962-79年是美、蘇關係的緩和期。雙方關係於此時期再次有所改善，不但簽訂了限制武備的協議，也有互訪及和平條約的出現，關係有所緩和。在裁軍條約方面，兩國簽訂了規範核試驗的《禁止核試條約》(1963年)和限制導彈系統及核武的《限制戰略武器條約》(1972年)。此外，雙方領導人也有互相的訪問，如1972年美國總統尼克遜訪蘇聯、1973年蘇聯領導人布里茲尼夫訪華盛頓，均可顯示雙方關係有所改善。另外，美、蘇雙方也簽訂和平條約，互相作出讓步，如於1975年《赫爾辛基協定》中，美國承認二戰後的東歐邊界；蘇聯也承諾給人民基本人權和自由，反映兩國關係有所緩和。可見，此時期的雙方關係有所改善。
核問題使美、蘇關係得到改善。美、蘇在1962年爆發了古巴導彈危機，兩國的戰爭如箭在弦，一觸即發。由於雙方均恐懼核戰的爆發會摧毀己國，結果令雙方願意在古巴導彈危機中作出退讓，並於危機後簽訂《禁止核試條約》(1963年)以緩和核武器的競賽，又於同年建立「熱線」以加強溝通，避免核戰的爆發。此外，由於核軍備的研發及製造均耗用了大量的資金，使兩國經濟備受壓力。因此，美、蘇希望緩和雙方的關係以減低高昂的軍費開支，如於1969年開始舉行限制戰略武器會議，以規限軍備上的數量，有助使兩國關係改善。
1979-85年是美、蘇關係再次交惡的時期。兩國於軍事及社會方面的交惡尤其明顯。在軍事方面，美國於1980年強烈譴責蘇聯入侵阿富汗，並且廢除了《第二回合限制戰略武器條約》，不願意再與蘇聯改善關係。更甚，美國於1983年提出了「星戰計劃」，視蘇聯為其太空戰略佈署的假想敵，反映雙方再次陷入對立的局面。此外，在社會方面，美、蘇雙方互相杯葛對方舉行的奧運會，包括美國在1980年聯同西方國家杯葛蘇聯舉辦的莫斯科奧運會，及後，蘇聯也率領東歐國家杯葛美國舉行的洛杉磯奧運會，顯示雙方關係交惡。可見，雙方關係在1979年後再次惡化。
蘇聯的侵略及太空競賽使兩國於此時期關係再次惡化。蘇聯的侵略使兩國再一次對立，由於蘇聯於1979年入侵阿富汗，導致美國極為不滿，故杯葛1980年的莫斯科奧運會及廢除《第二回合限制戰略武器條約》，及後蘇聯亦於1984年聯同東歐國家杯葛洛杉磯奧運會以作還擊，使兩國關係再次陷入僵局。此外，美國於1980年代加強於太空的戰略佈署，如於1983年提出「星戰計劃」，聯同北約成員國研究太空攔截技術，視蘇聯為假想敵。此舉不但引起了蘇聯的猜忌，同時也刺激起美、蘇於太空範疇的軍事競爭，終導致兩國關係持續惡化。
1985-91年是美、蘇的緩和及友好期。1985年後，美、蘇在外交和軍事的交流和合作增加，更共同宣佈了冷戰的結束，關係大大改善。在外交方面，美、蘇再次出現領導層間的訪問，如1985年戈巴卓夫與美國總統列根和英國首相戴卓爾夫人會面，列根也於1988年出訪莫斯科，顯示雙方領導層有所接觸。在軍事方面，兩國也再次達成裁軍的協定，如1987年的《中程導彈裁撤條約》，顯示兩國關係再度得以改善。更重要的是，美、蘇更於馬爾他首腦會議(1989)中暗示冷戰即將結束，顯示雙方已解除敵對狀態，關係趨向緩和及友好。可見，兩國的關係於最後階段有所改善。
戈巴卓夫的上台使美、蘇關係大大改善。隨著1985年戈巴卓夫出任蘇共總書記一職，其開明、溫和的政策有助雙方關係得以改善，如1985年與美國總統列根及英國首相戴卓爾夫人會面，並主動與美國研究裁減軍備的協定。此外，戈巴卓夫又於1988年將蘇軍撤離阿富汗，並於1989-91年逐步放寬對東歐國家的控制，使美國對蘇聯的印象大大得以改善，成為此時期美、蘇關係得以真正改善的要因。
總括而言，美、蘇主導了冷戰時期國際關係的發展，兩國關係的交惡導致了冷戰局勢的惡化。最終，兩國於20世紀末關係的改善也促使了冷戰的落幕。
Trace and explain the relationship between the US and the USSR during the period 1943-91.
The relationship of the US and USSR was very complicated in 1943-91. They had poor relations in 1943-62, seemingly improved relations in 1962-79, worsened again in 1979-85 and the improved and friendly relations in 1985-91. Below, they would be traced and explained one by one.
The US and USSR had poor relations in 1943-62. In this period, the US and USSR counterbalanced each other in the economic and military aspects. Contradiction and conflicts occurred in diplomacy as well and all these led to their poor relationship. In the economic aspect, the US and USSR implemented the Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃(1948) and the Molotov Plan莫洛托夫計劃(1947) respectively to assist the Western and Eastern European countries. Economic contradiction was resulted. Apart from that, in the military aspect, the US and USSR formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization北約(1949) and Warsaw Pact華沙公約(1955) which contradicted each other. Furthermore, in the diplomatic aspect, despite of their relationship as allies in 1943-45, contradictions existed in numerous wartime conferences. For instance, in the Yalta Conference雅爾達會議(1945), the US demanded Poland to conduct democratic election after war; however, the USSR rejected it. It reflected that conflicts happened among these countries. Worse still, the Berlin Crisis柏林危機(1948-49) and Cuban Missile Crisis古巴導彈危機(1962) broke out among these two countries in this period. Wars nearly broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis. This showed that their relationship was extremely poor. This reflected that it was the period of conflict of US-USSR relationship.
The ideological divergence and post-war problems worsened the relationship of the US and USSR. In the aspect of ideological divergence, the US advocated capitalism which promoted ideas like liberty, democracy and human rights自由、民主及人權. Hence, it was discontented towards the autocratic rule of USSR. At the same time, communist USSR believed that capitalism was a system which was utilized by capitalists to exploit the proletariats資本階級剝削無產階級. Therefore, it disagreed with capitalism. Due to the ideological divergence, the US and USSR criticized, distrust and even contradicted each other so as to protect the stability of their own side. For instance, the US and USSR supported Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China respectively in the Chinese Civil War國共內戰(1946-49). A conflicting position was formed and their relationship worsened. Apart from that, the divergence in post-war settlements distanced their relationship. For instance, in the issue of Germany德國, the US hoped to preserve its integrity so as to facilitate the development of trade and economy. However, the USSR thought that the powerful and unified Germany would impose threat to its Western border, and thus rejected such proposal. Eventually, numerous conflicts happened with the issue of Germany and they thus had a poor relationship.
US and USSR had improved relations in 1962-79. Their relationship had improvement again in this period. Not only did they sign treaties which limited armament, they also exchanged official visits and implemented peace treaties. These all showed the relieve of tense relationship. In the aspect of disarmament, both countries signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty禁止核試條約(1963) which restricted the nuclear test and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talk Agreement(SALT I) 限制戰略武器條約 (1972) for restrictions on missile systems and nuclear weapons. Also, the US and USSR heads of state exchanged official visits. For instance, US President Nixon尼克遜 visited the USSR and also China in 1972; the Soviet leader Brezhnev布里茲尼夫 visited Washington, which showed the improvement of their relations. Besides, the US and USSR signed peace treaties and made concessions. For example, the US recognised the post-war boundaries of Eastern Europe in the Helsinki Agreement赫爾辛基協定 (1975); the USSR promised its people basic human rights and freedom, which reflected détente between the two countries. It was clear that their relations improved in this stage.
Nuclear problem improved the US-USSR relationship. Cuban Missile Crisis broke out in 1962 among the US and USSR. This made war to be very likely. As both sides feared that the occurrence of nuclear war would destroy their own countries, they were willing to give in during the Cuban Missile Crisis. After the Crisis, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty禁止核試條約 (1963) was signed which alleviated the armament race of nuclear weapons. In the same year, a hotline熱線 was established to foster communication and prevent the outbreak of nuclear war. Apart from that, owing to the heavy financial burden caused by the arms race such as the capital invested in research and production of nuclear weapons, the economies of the US and USSR were heavily pressurized. Thus, they hoped to improve their relations so as to reduce military expenditures; for example, they held SALTs限制戰略武器會議 since 1969 to restrict the quantities of armaments, resulting in better relations.
In 1979-85, the relations between the US and USSR worsened again. The poor relation was more obvious in the military and social aspects. In the military aspect, the US greatly condemned the USSR invasion to Afghanistan阿富汗 in 1980. It scrapped SALT II第二回合限制戰略武器條約 and was not willing to improve relationship with USSR. Worse still, in 1983, the US launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 星戰計劃 which regarded the USSR as its imaginary enemy. It reflected that they counterbalance each other again at that time. Apart from that, in the social aspect, the US and USSR boycotted the Olympic Games of each other. For instance, the US boycotted the Moscow Olympic Games莫斯科奧運會 in 1980 together with the Western European countries. Later, the USSR led the Eastern European countries and boycotted the Los Angeles Olympic Games洛杉磯奧運會 which was held by the US. This showed the poor relationship of the two. It was clear that their relationship worsened again after 1979.
Invasion of the USSR and the space race worsened the relationship of countries in this period. The Soviet invasion prompted confrontation between the two nations. As the USSR invaded Afghanistan阿富汗in 1979, the US was absolutely discontented, thus boycotted the Olympic Games held in Moscow莫斯科奧運會 in 1980 and abolished the SALT II《第二回合限制戰略武器條約》. To counteract, the USSR also called on other Eastern European countries to boycott the Los Angles Olympic Games in 1984, resulting in a state of deadlock. Also, the US strengthened its strategic deployment in space in the 1980s. For example, it introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative(SDI) 星戰計劃 in 1983; NATO members united to do research on space interception technology and saw the USSR as its imaginary enemy. This not only aroused the Soviet suspicion but also stimulated military competition in space between the US and USSR, leading to deterioration of their relations.
US and USSR had an improved and friendly relations in 1985-91. After 1985, the interflow and cooperation of the US and USSR in the diplomatic and military aspects increased. Moreover, they announced the end of Cold War, proving the great improvement of their relationship. In the diplomatic aspect, there was again exchange of visits by leaders of the US and the USSR. For instance, Gorbachev戈巴卓夫 met with US President Reagan列根 and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher戴卓爾夫人 in 1985, and Reagan paid a visit to Moscow in 1988. The mutual visits demonstrated communication among the leaders. In the military aspect, the US and the USSR reached even more disarmament agreements such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treat(INF)中程導彈裁撤條約(1987), which exemplify further improvement in their relationship. Most importantly, they dropped a hint of the end of the Cold War in the Malta Conference馬爾他首腦會議(1989)－they were no longer hostile but inclined towards friendliness. These show improvements in their relationship at the final stage.
The rise of Gorbachev greatly increased the relationship of the US and USSR. As Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the USSR, its enlightened and mild policies contributed to the improvement of relations with the US. For example, he met with US President Reagan列根and Margaret Thatcher戴卓爾夫人, Prime Minister of Britain in 1985 and asked the US to discuss disarmament agreements together. Besides, Gorbachev withdrew the Soviet troops from Afghanistan阿富汗 in 1988 and relaxed the Soviet control over Eastern Europe step by step, giving the US a better impression, which was the real factor in the improvement of the US-USSR relations.
To sum up, the US-USSR dominated the development of international relationship in the Cold War. The worsening of relationship between the two countries worsened the circumstance of Cold War. Eventually, the improvement of their relationship in the late 20th century facilitated the end of Cold War.
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