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原題目題號：DSE-練習卷-Essay-02
1949年在哪些方面可被視為中國近代歷史的轉捩點？
背景 1949年中國共產黨擊敗了國民黨，建立了中華人民共和國。 // 架構中華人民共和國的建立為中國政治、經濟、社會、軍事及外交方面均帶來了翻天覆地的轉變，是中國近代歷史的轉捩點。
主旨句 政治方面，1949年是中國政體由資本主義政體轉變成為共產主義政體的轉捩點。 // 核心點前的情況 1949年前，執政的國民黨按照孫中山的建國大綱，逐步實行軍權、訓政、憲政，希望將中國打造成為類近於美、法等資本主義國家的共和政制國家。至1946年，南京政府頒布了《中華民國憲法》，確立了行政、立法、司法、考試、監察五權分立，並且設有國會、內閣及總統，令中國成為一個資本主義形式的共和政體。 // 核心點及核心點後的情況然而，至1949年，由於國民黨於第二次國共內戰中戰敗，被迫敗走台灣，共產黨成功取得了中國政權，建立了中華人民共和國。1949年後，中國正式搖身一變成為一個共產主義國家，摒棄了過往五權分立的模式而實行一黨專政，所有權力收歸共產黨所有，國務院、全國人大及中央軍委會等主要政府機構均由共產黨人員出任。// 對比 相比之下，1949年中國實行資本主義形式的共和政制，但由於1949年共產黨擊敗了國民黨，令中國政體轉變至共產主義政體，更沿用至今，可見1949年的確是中國政治方面的轉捩點。
經濟方面，1949年是中國經濟體系和生產模式的轉捩點。1949年前，中國在南京政府的統治下實行資本主義的自由經濟體系，允許自由貿易，大力發展金融業及商業，例如於1928年成立中央銀行以管理金融業的發展，並且頒布一連串的經濟法規，如《交易所法》﹑《度量衡法》，以營造有利環境予企業。此外，人民能夠自由工作，生產是以個體進行，並非實行集體化生產。然而，隨著1949年共產黨建國，中國在經濟上實行共產主義的高壓控制體系，由政府實行五年計劃以規劃經濟的發展。1949年後，商業、金融業及貿易等受到限制，政府於1953年實行統購統銷制度，控制糧食來源及供應，限制經濟的自由化。再者，為了落實共產主義的理念，政府轉以實行集體化生產，例如大躍進時期成立人民公社(1958年)，設生產大隊以分配生產崗位。相比之下，中國經濟於1949年的自由經濟體系轉變至1949年後的高度控制體系，生產模式亦由個體化生產轉變至集體化生產，在經濟體系和形式上均出現了截然不同的轉變，故是轉捩點。
社會方面，1949年是中國社會階級結構逆轉的轉捩點。1949年前，中國資產階級主導著無產階級，商人、企業家及地主等為上層階級，享受著經濟的主要成果，其中南京時期的四大家族(蔣宋孔陳)就是其中的代表例子，其壟斷了經濟的發展。相反，大多工人和農民生活貧苦，更可能需要為資產階級工作，反映無產階級在1949年前的社會地位低下，受到資產階級的壓抑。然而，至1949年，主張工農階級為領導的共產黨成功擊敗國民黨，建立以無產階級為首的政權。1949年後，大量資產家恐懼共產主義會使其利益受損而移居外國，使資產階級人數大減。同時，共產黨於建國後積極打壓資產階級，例如於1950年推出《土地改革法》，充公地主的土地以分配予貧農、佃農，再加上文革(1966-76年)進一步打擊殘餘的資產階級勢力，使資產階級於毛澤東時期已經消失殆盡。相比之下，1949年前資產階級主導著無產階級，但1949年中共建國後，無產階級逆襲資產階級，成為了主導社會的階層，可見是中國階級結構的轉捩點。
軍事方面，1949年是中國戰局由戰事連連轉變為平定統一的轉捩點。於1949年前，中國處於長期的混戰局勢，自袁世凱於1916年逝世後，中國隨即陷入軍閥混戰的局面。儘管南京政府透過軍事方式於1928年北伐成功，剷除了軍閥，但隨之南京政府又開始不斷對共產黨的剿滅戰，更於1933-34年間五次剿共。往後，日本的入侵雖然使國共內戰暫時停止，但1945年日本投降後，國民黨與共產黨再次爆發內戰。從上可見，20世紀上半葉的中國幾乎長期處於戰爭狀態。然而，隨著共產黨於第二次國共內戰中擊敗國民黨，更在後期的三大會戰(遼沈、淮海與平津戰役)中殲滅國民黨達150萬兵力，使國民黨被迫敗走台灣。至1949年後，共產黨完全控制了中國，長期混戰的局面正式得到告終，中國國內於1949年後亦沒有再出現重大的內戰或受到外國入侵。相比之下，20世紀上半葉的中國戰事連連，軍閥混戰、日本入侵、國共內戰等戰事一直纏繞著中國，但由於1949年共產黨打敗了國民黨，結束了長期戰禍的局面，故為一轉捩點。
外交方面，1949年是中國多邊外交走向單邊外交的轉捩點。於1949年前，中國實行多邊外交，積極發展與不同國家的關係，以爭取列強廢除在華的不平等條約和對抗日本的入侵，例如1943年蔣介石出席開羅會議，與美、英兩國領袖商討上述事宜。此外，雖然1949年前國民黨與蘇聯不和，但中國共產黨就與蘇聯保持了緊密的關係，蘇聯更將二次大戰中繳獲的日軍武器送贈予共產黨。然而，至1949年中華人民共和國成立，中共痛恨美國等曾經協助國民黨的資本主義國家，加上西方資本主義國家亦對共產的中國抱有猜忌。於1949年後，中國與資本主義國家長期關係交惡，中共更實行一邊倒外交，僅與共產主義國家關係靠攏，例如於1950年與蘇聯簽訂《中蘇友好同盟互助條約》，奠定友好關係。此外，又於1950-53年的韓戰中出兵支持北韓，支援共產主義的國家。相比之下，1949年前中國的外交是多邊的，與資本主義國家和共產主義國家均有往來，但1949年後中國實行一邊倒外交政策，僅發展與共產主義國家的關係，成為中國外交發展的轉捩點。
總括而言，新中國的建立的確為中國政治、經濟、社會、軍事及外交方面均帶來了截然不同的轉變，是中國近代歷史的轉捩點。
In what ways could the year 1949 be regarded as a turning point in modern Chinese history?
In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party defeated the Kuomintang and announced the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, which led to sweeping changes in political, economic, social, military and diplomatic aspects of China. Therefore, the year was a turning point in modern Chinese history.
Politically speaking, the year 1949 was the turning point when China’s political system changed from a capitalist one to a communist one. Before 1949, the ruling Kuomintang followed Sun Yat-sen’s ‘Fundamentals of National Reconstruction’ to proceed from military rule to political tutelage and to constitutional government. The goal was to establish a republic in China similar to capitalist countries such as America and France. In 1946, the Nanjing government also promulgated the Constitution of the Republic of China that guaranteed the separation of the five powers represented by the Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Control and Examination Yuans, and the presence of a parliament, cabinet and president, making China a capitalist republic. However, in 1949, the Kuomintang was defeated in the Chinese Civil War and had to flee to Taiwan, while the Communist Party took control of China and established the People’s Republic of China. After 1949, China was transformed into a communist country. The five-power separation was replaced by one-party dictatorship, under which the Communist Party enjoyed complete power and its members filled up all positions in major government institutions such as the State Council, National People’s Congress and Central Military Commission. In comparison, China before 1949 was a republic running a capitalist system, but the Communist Party defeated the Kuomintang in 1949 and installed a communist regime that has existed until now. Therefore, the year 1949 was a turning point for China politically.
Economically speaking, the year 1949 was a turning point for China’s economic system and mode of production. Before 1949, China under Nanjing rule had a free market economy that was a product of capitalism. It allowed free trade and greatly promoted the development of the financial and commercial sectors. For example, it set up the Central Bank in 1928 to regulate the financial industry, and introduced a series of economic regulations such as the Exchange Act and Weights and Measures Act to create a business-friendly environment. In addition, people could work on their own will and production was individualized instead of collectivized. However, after the communist takeover in 1949, China came under strict control by the communists and the government implemented five-year plans to manipulate the economy. After 1949, the commercial and financial sectors as well as trade were regulated. In 1953, the government adopted the unified purchase and marketing system to control the origin and supply of food, and this undermined the country’s economic freedom. In addition, in order to realize communism, the government enforced collectivization of production as exemplified by the People’s Communes (1958) and production teams formed during the Great Leap Forward. In comparison, China’s economy changed from a free economy before 1949 to a highly planned economy after that, and its mode of production also changed from individualized to collectivized. With significant changes in its economic system and mode, the year was a turning point.
In social aspect, the year 1949 was the turning point when China’s social class structure was reversed. Before 1949, the bourgeoisie had dominance over the proletariat. The upper class was filled by merchants, entrepreneurs and landlords who enjoyed most of the fruits of economic growth, and of those, the most representative were the Big Four Families (Song, Chen, Jiang and Kong) who monopolized the economy during the Nanjing period. In stark contrast, most workers and peasants led a poor life and worked for the bourgeoisie. The proletariat had low social status and were exploited by the bourgeoisie before 1949. However, in 1949, the Communist Party that advocated the leadership of the working class defeated the Kuomintang and established a regime headed by the proletariat. After 1949, the number of the bourgeoisie plummeted since many of them emigrated for fear that the communists would jeopardize their interests. Also, the Communist Party actively sought to suppress the bourgeoisie after founding the PRC. For instance, it announced the Agrarian Reform Law in 1950 to expropriate land from landlords and redistribute it to peasants who had no land. In addition to further suppression during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), the bourgeoisie had disappeared by the end of the Maoist period. In comparison, the bourgeoisie had dominance over the proletariat before 1949, but after the founding of the PRC in 1949, the proletariat turned the tables on the bourgeoisie and became the leading class of society. Therefore, the year was the turning point marking the shift in China’s social class structure.
In military aspect, the year 1949 was the turning point marking the transition from war to peace in China. Before 1949, China was trapped in wars for long. The death of Yuan Shikai in 1916 was immediately followed by the chaotic Warlord Era. Although the Nanjing government got rid of warlords by military means in the successful Northern Expedition in 1928, it started its sustained effort against the Communist Party and even launched five encirclement campaigns against the communists between 1933 and 1934. The Japanese invasion put the war between the two parties into hiatus but the civil war continued after Japan’s surrender in 1945. It was clear that China was fighting in wars in almost the whole first half of the 20th century. However, the CCP soon defeated the KMT in the Chinese Civil War and killed 1.5 million KMT soldiers in the three major campaigns (Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin Campaigns), forcing the nationalists to flee to Taiwan. After 1949, the Communist Party took full control of China and ended the prolonged wars. There had been no major civil wars or foreign invasions affecting China since 1949. In comparison, China suffered successive wars in the first half of the 20th century and experienced the Warlord Era, Japanese invasion, Chinese Civil War and other armed conflicts, but all these ended as the CCP defeated the KMT in the year 1949, which was therefore a turning point.
In diplomatic aspect, the year 1949 was the turning point when China abandoned multilateral diplomacy for unilateral diplomacy. Before 1949, China adopted multilateral foreign policy and actively built ties with different countries in order to abolish unequal treaties and resist Japanese invasions. For example, in 1943, Chiang Kai-shek attended the Cairo Conference to discuss the above matters with the leaders of America and Britain. In addition, despite the KMT’s hostility with the Soviets, the CCP retained close ties with the USSR and the Soviets even gave all the weapons seized from the Japanese to the communists. However, when the PRC was established in 1949, the CCP loathed capitalist countries like America that used to support the KMT, while Western countries were suspicious of Communist China. After 1949, there was a long-term split between China and capitalist countries, and China implemented a unilateral foreign policy by only building relations with communist countries. For example, it signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance in 1950 that guaranteed its friendly relationship with the USSR. Also, it also fought in the Korean War of 1950-53 in favour of North Korea, providing assistance for a communist country. In comparison, China before 1949 exercised multilateral diplomacy and had connections with both capitalist and communist countries, but after 1949 it used unilateral diplomacy and developed relations only with communist countries. The year was therefore a turning point in China’s diplomatic development.
In conclusion, the founding of the new China did cause sweeping changes in political, economic, social, military and diplomatic aspects of the country, being a turning point in modern Chinese history.
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