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原題目題號：DSE-練習卷-Essay-Q4
分析巴黎和約(1919-23年)如何確立了新的國際秩序。
定義 「國際秩序」指各國在處理國際事務中所運行的準則和行為規範，繼而形成的世界格局。列強於一次大戰後舉行了巴黎和會，制訂對戰敗國的懲罰，包括對德國的《凡爾賽條約》、對奧地利的《聖澤門條約》、對土耳其的《賽佛爾條約》、對匈牙利的《特里亞農條約》及對保加利亞的《納伊條約》，合稱巴黎和約。 // 架構 這些條約對國際秩序起了破舊立新的作用，在政治、民族、經濟、軍事、外交等方面均確立了新的國際秩序。
主旨句 政治方面，巴黎和約確立了英、法主持國際事務的新秩序。 // 項目B(舊的國際秩序) 於巴黎和約前，由於三國同盟及三國協約互相對峙，未有一方可以取得壓倒性的主導權，因此國際事務由雙方互相協調而解決，例如第二次摩洛哥危機(1911年)就由德、法兩國談判所解決。 // 項目A(新的國際秩序) 然而，由於同盟國於一次大戰中戰敗，被迫簽訂了極為嚴苛的條約，例如《凡爾賽條約》使德國喪失了約10%的土地和人口，以及限制軍隊人數至10萬人；《聖澤門條約》將奧匈帝國分裂為奧地利與匈牙利，使德、奧的勢力大減。結果，弱勢的德、奧不能再與英、法一爭長短，加上美國於戰後繼續採取孤立政策，主持國際事務的重任就落於英、法身上，例如英國於1925年《羅加諾公約》中作為保證國；英、法於1938年慕尼黑會議中作為主事國，負責處理德國與捷克斯洛伐克之間的糾紛。 // 對比(~20%) 相比之下，在主事國方面，巴黎和約大大削弱了德國及奧匈帝國的國力，打破了過往三國同盟與三國協約互相協調以處理國際事務的模式，從而確立出英、法主持國際事務的新秩序。
民族方面，巴黎和約確立了利用民族自決解決問題的新國際秩序。巴黎和約之前，列強之間未有利用「民族自決」的原則作為處理問題方式，例如於解決第一次巴爾幹戰爭而召開的倫敦會議(1913年)中，列強未有用上「民族自決」的原則，將馬其頓交由塞爾維亞及保加利亞共同管治。然而，於巴黎和會中，美國總統威爾遜為避免各國再次因民族問題而出現衝突及戰爭，於是引入了「民族自決」的原則，例如《聖澤門條約》中建立了捷克斯洛伐克及南斯拉夫等民族國家，使這些民族不用再受到其他大國的統治。往後，「民族自決」成為了國際社會處理問題的重要原則，例如聯合國的其中宗旨就是發展人民的自決權利。相比之下，在民族事務上，於巴黎和約前，「民族自決」並非國際間解決紛爭所採取的原則，但巴黎和約使用了「民族自決」以制訂和平條約，令往後國際社會於處理國際事務上也用上此原則，締造出新的國際秩序。
經濟方面，巴黎和約確立了由美國主導經濟體系的新國際秩序。於一次大戰前，歐洲是世界經濟的核心，但一次大戰對歐洲各國造成了無可估量的破壞，英、法等國於戰後陷入經濟困難，削弱了其對世界經濟的主導權。至巴黎和會時，由於《凡爾賽條約》、《聖澤門條約》等條約徹底削弱了戰敗國的國力，其中德國更被迫償還330億美元的款項，經濟跌入谷底。與此同時，巴黎和約確立了美國的大國地位，因美國成為制定條約的「三巨頭」之一，使之與歐洲關係更加緊密。會後，美國大量借貸予歐洲國家，例如對德國的「道茲計劃」(1924年)及「楊格計劃」(1929年)等，成為了世界最大的債權國。相比之下，在經濟秩序上，巴黎和約打破了以歐洲經濟為中心的舊有國際秩序，美國於會後逐步取代了歐洲成為了世界經濟的中心，歐洲國家更需要依靠美國的貸款以振興國內經濟，成為了新的國際經濟秩序。
軍事方面，巴黎和約確立了世界性軍事格局的新秩序。締結巴黎和約前，軍事格局主要圍繞著英、法、德、俄、奧的歐洲「五強」，其他國家被視為是次一等的軍事強國，例如日、美就分別只是亞、美洲的強國。然而，巴黎和約大大削弱了德、奧匈的軍力，例如《凡爾賽條約》限制德國陸軍人數至10萬人；《聖澤門條約》將奧匈帝國一分為二，國力大減，德、奧匈不能再成為軍事強國。同時，由於美、日以戰勝國身份出席巴黎和會，加上兩國擁有強大的軍力，因此使軍事格局於巴黎和約後出現重大的變化。於締結巴黎和約後，美、日兩國被視為是世界的軍事強國，例如於1921-22年華盛頓會議和1930年倫敦海軍會議中，美國的海軍與英國的在比例上並列，而日本也只是僅次於上述兩國，反映軍事格局已經由歐洲擴至世界性，形成了新的軍事格局。相比之下，在軍事秩序上，巴黎和約打破了過往歐洲五強的軍事格局，隨著德、奧匈的國力下降和美、日的勢力崛起，軍事格局由過往的歐洲擴展至世界性，形成了新的國際軍事秩序。
外交方面，巴黎和約確立了成立國際組織以促進和平及合作的新秩序。於巴黎和約簽訂前，國際社會對於促進和平及合作的努力較為鬆散，全憑涉事的相關國家自行處理，例如第一次摩洛哥危機(1905年)時，德、法等國召開了阿爾及西勒會議自行解決摩洛哥的糾紛。然而，一次大戰後，列強希望透過成立一國際組織以促進和平與合作，故於巴黎和會中一致通過成立國際聯盟，使國聯於1920年成立，建立起透過國際組織解決問題和促進合作的新秩序，例如國聯於1921年調停了德國與波蘭對於上西里西亞的領土糾紛。此外，國聯在傳染病的傳播及國際性的販毒問題上也加強了各國的合作，是國際協作的新嘗試。往後，聯合國(1945年)也是在國聯功能的基礎上再作改良及強化。相比之下，在維和組織方面，巴黎和約簽訂前，國際社會未有維和組織以維持和平，但巴黎和約卻促成了國際聯盟的創設，確立以國際組織促進和平及合作的新秩序，而此秩序更一直維持至今，對於國際秩序的運作產生了劃時代的意義。
總括而言，巴黎和約打破了政治、民族、經濟、軍事及外交等多方面的舊有國際秩序，並確立了新的國際秩序，使國際局勢於巴黎和約出現了重大的轉變。
Analyse how the Paris Peace Settlements (1919-23) established a new international order.
‘International order’ refers to a global landscape of rules and standards followed by all countries when dealing with international affairs. The powers held the Paris Peace Conference after WW1 so as to impose punishments to the defeated nations. It included the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 to Germany, Treaty of St. Germain聖澤門條約 to Austria, Treaty of Sèvres賽佛爾條約 to Turkey, Treaty of Trianon特里亞農條約 to Hungary and Treaty de Neuilly納伊條約 to Bulgaria. These treaties were called the Paris Peace Treaties. These treaties changed the political landscape by establishing a new international order in political, national, economic, military and diplomatic aspects.
In political aspect, the Paris Peace Treaties formed the new order with Britain and France as the leaders in international affairs. Before the Paris Peace Conference, the Triple Alliance三國同盟 counterbalanced Triple Entente三國協約 and neither side could get the dominating power. Therefore, international affairs were solved by negotiation of both sides. For instance, the Second Moroccan Crisis第二次摩洛哥危機(1911) was solved by the negotiation between Germany and France. However, as the Triple Alliance was defeated in WW1, the allies were forced to sign a harsh treaty. For instance, the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 forced Germany to forgo 10% land and population, restricted the size of army to 100 thousands soldiers; Treaty of St. Germain聖澤門條約 divided Austria-Hungary into Austria奧地利 and Hungary匈牙利, their national strength were greatly reduced. As a result, the weak Germany and Austria could not counterbalance with Britain and France. For instance, Britain was the guaranteed country in Locarno Treaties羅加諾公約 in 1925; Britain and France were the major countries in the Munich Conference慕尼黑會議 in 1938 and were responsible for dealing with the conflicts between Germany and Czechoslovakia. Upon comparison, in terms of leadership, the Paris Peace Treaties greatly reduced the national strength of Germany and Austria-Hungary. It replaced the coordination between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente with the new order with Britain and France as the leaders in international affairs.
In national aspect, the Paris Peace Treaties established the new international order of solving problems using the Principle of National Self-determination民族自決. Before the Paris Peace Treaties, the powers did not utilize the Principle of National Self-determination to deal with problems. For instance, in the London Conference倫敦會議(1913) held to deal with the First Balkan War第一次巴爾幹戰爭, the powers did not implement such principle and allowed Serbia塞爾維亞 and Bulgaria保加利亞 to mutually rule Macedonia馬其頓. However, in the Paris Peace Conference, the US President Wilson would like to avoid countries from having conflicts and wars due to the ethnic problem. Therefore, he advocated the Principle of National Self-determination. For instance, in the Treaty of St. Germain聖澤門條約, nation states like Czechoslovakia捷克斯洛伐克 and Yugoslavia南斯拉夫 were created. These nationalities did not have to be ruled under other powerful countries. After that, such principle became the major way for the international community to deal with problems. For instance, the major aim of the United Nations聯合國 was to develop the right of people to self-determine the development of countries. Upon comparison, in terms of national principles, national self-determination was not a common method for resolving disputes in the international community before the Paris Peace Treaties, but its emergence as a peace treaty based on national self-determination led to the prevalence of such principle in international affairs, which constituted a new international order.
In economic aspect, the Paris Peace Treaties created a new international order of a US-led economic system. Before WW1, Europe was the core of the world economy. However, WW1 created huge damage to the European countries. Countries including Britain and France had to face economic difficulties after the war and this reduced their domination in world’s economy. In the Paris Peace Conference, treaties like the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 and Treaty of St. Germain聖澤門條約 totally reduced the national strength of the defeated nations. Germany was forced to repay an indemnity of USD 3.3 billion and her economy was extremely poor. At the same time, the Paris Peace Treaties recognized the US as a world power. The US was one of the Big Three三巨頭 in enacting treaty. It made her relationship with Europe even closer. After the conference, the US granted a lot of loans to European countries. For instance, the US became the biggest creditor nation債權國 by providing loans like the Dawes Plan道茲計劃(1924) and the Young Plan楊格計劃(1929). Upon comparison, in terms of economic order, the Paris Peace Treaties destroyed the old international order of Europe being the centre of world economy. A new international order of European countries had to rely on the loans of the US to rejuvenate their internal economy was formed.
In military aspect, the Paris Peace Conference formed a new international system of military powers. Before the Paris Peace Treaties, the system of military powers mainly focused on five powers in Europe - Britain, France, Germany, Soviet Union and Austria. Other countries were treated as military powers which were inferior to them. For instance, Japan and the US were respectively the powers in Asia and the America only. However, the Paris Peace Treaties greatly reduced the military power of Germany and Austria-Hungary. For instance, the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 limited the number of soldiers of Germany to 100 thousand people; Treaty of St. Germain聖澤門條約 divided Austria-Hungary into two parts, and her national strength was greatly reduced. So, Germany and Austria-Hungary could no longer became two military powers. At the same time, the US and Japan participated in the Paris Peace Conference as two victorious nations. Also, these two countries had great military power. Therefore, the system of military powers changed a lot after the Paris Peace Treaties. After the implementation of the Paris Peace Treaties, the US and Japan were recognized as world great military powers. For instance, in the Washington Conference華盛頓會議 in 1921-22 and the London Naval Conference倫敦海軍會議 in 1930, the ratio in Navy size of the US and Britain was the same. Japan was ranked just after these two countries. This showed that a new system of military powers which extended from Europe to the world was formed. Upon comparison, in terms of military order, the Paris Peace Conference upset the existing military landscape of the five main European military powers. With the fall of Germany and Austria-Hungary as well as the rise of the US and Japan, a new international military order was established.
In diplomatic aspect, the Paris Peace Treaties established a new international order of forming an international organization to foster peace and cooperation. Before the signing of the Paris Peace Treaties, international community put less effort in foster peace and cooperation. They just relied on the related countries to solve conflicts on themselves. For instance, in the First Moroccan Crisis第一次摩洛哥危機(1905), countries like Germany and France held the Algeciras Conference阿爾及西勒會議 to solve the conflict in Morocco. However, after WW1, the powers hoped to foster peace and cooperation by setting up an international organization. Therefore, the League of Nations was established in the Paris Peace Conference. The League of Nations國際聯盟 was formed in 1920. A new order of solving problems and fostering cooperation through an international organization was formed. For instance, in 1921, the League of Nations mediated the territorial conflict between Germany and Poland in obtaining Upper Silesia上西里西亞. Also, the League of Nations successfully fostered the cooperation among countries on the spread of infectious diseases傳染病的傳播 and the international drug trafficking problem販毒問題. These were the new attempts in international cooperation. After that, the United Nations聯合國(1945), which was modified and improved based on the functions of the League of Nations, was formed. Upon comparison, in terms of peace-keeping organizations, there were no peacekeeping organizations devoted to maintaining peace before the Paris Peace Treaties, but the signing of these treaties contributed to the founding of the League of Nations that established the new international order to bring about peace and cooperation through international organizations. Such order has been maintained even until now, having an epoch-making impact on the world order.
To sum up, the Paris Peace Treaties scattered the old international orders in political, national, economic, military and diplomatic aspects. Also, a new international order was formed and the international circumstances had huge changes with the implementation of treaty.
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