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原題目題號：DSE-2018-Essay-03
「美國因素是影響日本在1945-60年代發展的主要因素。」你是否同意此說？試解釋你的答案。
背景 日本於1945年宣佈無條件投降後，隨即被以美國五星上將麥克阿瑟為首的盟總接管，全面受到美國的控制。 // 架構儘管美國在1952年撤出日本，但美國在佔領期間及撤離後均對日本政治、經濟、軍事、外交等方面有著至關重要的重要性，相反，國際因素、日本政府、民族因素均不及美國因素重要。 // 立場因此，題目所言確能成立。
主旨句 政治方面，美國短期令日本政治失去自主權，但長遠卻為日本奠定了民主化發展。 // 主項的重要性短期而言，以美國為首的盟總政府佔領了日本，使日本政府直至1952年為止受到盟總政府的操控而失去自主權，例如被迫實行非軍事化的措施，審判東條英機等前政府的主要官員，此乃美國因素為日本政治帶來的短期負面影響。然而，長遠而言，以美國為首的盟總政府使民主得到在日本確立。在非軍事化方面，盟總政府召開了遠東戰爭法庭，審判了6,000名軍人及整肅了20萬右翼分子，有助剷除軍國主義思想，為植根民主思想提供了良好的環境。在民主化方面，盟總政府為日本頒布了《昭和憲法》(1947年)，廢除天皇權力﹑提高下議院權力，並開展全民選舉的年代，使日本的民主制度能夠確立至今。 // 小結可見，美國短暫地為日本帶來負面影響，但長遠則帶來了莫大的裨益。
經濟方面，美國在破壞日本原有經濟體系的同時，也協助重建了日本的經濟發展。在破壞方面，以美國為首的盟總政府強迫頒布了《禁止壟斷法》(1947年)解散了財閥，又推行《土地改革法》(1946年)以解放農地，破壞了原有日本的經濟體系，使日本頓時失去了過往穩定的收入來源，帶來了短暫的經濟不穩。然而，在建設方面，美國不僅提供了20億美元的貸款以協助日本，重新推動日本經濟發展。同時，美國為首的盟總政府大刀闊斧為日本推行改革，其中解散財閥的措施防止了財閥壟斷經濟，令中、小企業能夠在公平、自由的情況下茁壯成長。同時，收購地主超過法定面積的農地並以接近零的價格售予佃農，使大約80%的耕地面積獲得解放，農民獲得土地後有助提昇生產力。在美國的致力協助下，日本經濟迅速復甦，日本的年均經濟增長率於1946-51年間就達到9.9%。可見，美國在為日本經濟帶來破壞的同時，也建設了日本的經濟復甦。
軍事方面，美國在短暫限制日本軍事發展的同時，但長遠卻令日本軍費開支大幅度減少。短暫而言，美國為首的盟總政府在1945年佔領了日本，為了避免日本再次發動戰爭，於是解除了日本的武裝，同時禁止日本擁有軍隊，使日本只能保留約10萬人的自衛隊和少數的軍艦，令日本軍事力量大大受到限制，沒有能力再次發動戰爭。然而，長遠而言，由於盟總政府在撤出日本前，美國於1951年與日本簽訂了《日美安全保障條約》，美軍會駐守日本，承擔保護日本的重任。結果，日本的軍事開支大幅減少，於1952-69年間每年只需投放少於1%的國民生產總值至軍事方面，有助日本政府能夠投放更多開支於經濟、教育等方面，為日本長遠的整體發展提供了良好的先天條件。可見，美國短期限制日本軍事發展的措施，卻有利於日本往後的整體性發展。
外交方面，美國在協助日本重建與資本主義國家關係的同時，也驅使了日本與共產主義國家關係長期交惡。戰後的日本受到以美國為首的盟總政府的支配，日本跟隨美國歸屬到資本主義陣營，外交長期受到美國影響。在重建關係方面，美國作為中間人的角色，召開了三藩市會議(1951年)，協調日本與東南亞國家的戰爭賠償議題，使日本在往後能夠陸續與鄰國建交，例如與馬來西亞於1957年建交、與印尼於1958年建交。此外，美國希望團結日本與南韓以共同圍堵亞洲的共產主義擴張，於是自1951年起開始協調兩國的關係，使日、韓展開了長達13年零8個月的七輪會談，最終也實現了日、韓於1965年的建交，日本與資本主義國家間的關係逐步建立。在破壞方面，由於美國視日本為對抗亞洲共產主義擴張的重要基地，例如在韓戰(1950-53年)及越戰(1961-75年)中，美國利用日本作為在兩次戰爭中的補給基地，以對抗共產主義派別，驅使日本與北韓、北越及中國的關係交惡，在1970年代前未能建交，保持敵對。可見，美國重建了日本與資本主義國家間的關係，卻破壞了與共產主義國家間的往來。
日本的戰後發展亦受其他因素的影響，但重要性不及美國因素。
主旨句儘管國際因素也塑造了日本的戰後發展，但重要性不及美國因素。// 他項重要性 經濟方面，戰後的國際形勢大大有利日本的經濟復甦，因共產主義與資本主義的抗爭使多場亞洲戰場出現，如韓戰(1950-53年)及越戰(1961-75年)等，為日本帶來「特需景氣」，藉出口軍火及補給品而獲利甚深，大大有助經濟的復甦。同時，外交方面，隨著冷戰降臨，資本主義國家與共產主義國家關係交惡，令資本主義陣營的日本長期未能與共產主義的中國、蘇聯等建立外交關係，維持了長時期的敵對關係，限制了日本的外交發展。 // 駁論然而，從因果關係而言，因美國利用當時的國際形勢扶助日本的發展，才使國際形勢變得有利日本的經濟發展，例如韓戰及越戰本來對日本並未有帶來直接的利益，但由於美國選擇日本作為物資供應的場所，使日本的出口量大增，為日本帶來了特需景氣。此外，美國為首的盟總政府佔領了日本，才令日本歸屬資本主義陣營，成為了美國對抗共產主義的重要棋子，令日本捲入冷戰，限制了共產主義國家間的關係。 // 小結 可見，美國因素較國際因素更為重要。
雖然日本政府也是影響日本發展的重要因素，但重要性亦不及美國。經濟方面，日本政府於盟總政府撤出後隨即致力發展經濟，確立「貿易立國」、「出口第一」的國策，並透過通商產業省、經濟審議廳等機構以制定合適的經濟發展策略及為企業提供技術支援，推動經濟建設。此外，在教育方面，日本政府十分重視教育的發展，不斷增加投放在教育方面的經費，令教育經費由1950-72年間增加達24倍。重視教育的政策不但使日本實現初中的普及教育，更使日本在1960年代末的高中入學率達到近9成，大大推動了日本的教育發展。然而，就因果關係，美國為日本奠定了有利經濟復甦的基礎，使日本政府能於後盟總時期收割經濟成果。例如美國於盟總時期為日本頒布《穩定經濟九項原則》(1948年)以協助其解決通貨膨脹及銀行財政困難等問題，及後，日本政府才能於此等基礎上繼續發展，如以「貿易立國」及「出口第一」作為發展策略。可見，美國因素對於日本戰後發展的重要性較日本政府重要。
民族因素也影響了日本的戰後發展，但美國因素的重要性更大。經濟方面，日人的民族特質對於經濟復甦亦具重要性，因傳統的武士道精神及近代強調忠君愛國的服從思想使日人願意遵從政府決策，全國上下一心專注發展經濟。而且，日人具有儲蓄的習慣及勇於投資均有助快速經濟的發展，加上具東方特色的管理制度營造了穩定的就業率及和諧的工作環境，使日本經濟能於谷底迅速反彈。然而，就影響力而言，當時日本財閥壟斷日本經濟，即使日人擁有優良的民族特質，但礙於環境所限，亦難以發揮作用，刺激中﹑小企業的發展，但美國正正為日本經濟發展打造有利形勢，頒布《禁止壟斷法》以解散財閥，使中﹑小型企業能得以於戰後急促發展。可見，美國消除了限制經濟發展的因素，使日人能發揮其優越的民族特質，故美國因素的重要性較大。
總括而言，美國對第二次世界大戰後的日本各方面均有著具有極大的影響力，不論是長期、短期，還是正面、負面，影響力均是舉足輕重，對於塑造1945-60年代的日本發展影響力最大，是最重要因素。
‘The America factor was the major factor that affected Japan’s development from 1945 to the 1960s.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer.
After its unconditional surrender in 1945, Japan was soon occupied by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) headed by American five-star General Douglas MacArthur under complete control by the United States. Despite the American withdrawal from Japan in 1952, the United States played a crucially important role in political, economic, military, diplomatic and other aspects of Japan during its occupation and even after its withdrawal, while international factors, the Japanese government and national factors were all less important than the America factor. Therefore, what the question suggests is valid.
Politically speaking, America deprived Japan of autonomy in the short term but laid the foundation for democracy in Japan in the long run. For the short term, the U.S.-led SCAP government occupied Japan and deprived the Japanese government of autonomy until 1952, as exemplified by the demilitarization measures forced upon the country and the trials of Tojo Hideki東條英機 and other former key government officials. This was the short-term negative political impact on Japan as a result of the America factor. However, in the long term, the U.S.-led SCAP government established democracy in Japan. In terms of demilitarization, the SCAP government convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East遠東戰爭法庭, at which 6,000 soldiers were convicted and over 200 thousand rightists were purged, to eradicate militarism and create a favorable environment for democracy. In terms of democratization, the SCAP government enacted the Showa Constitution昭和憲法(1947) for Japan to strip power from the Emperor, increase the power of the House of Representatives and introduce elections at different levels, establishing a democratic system in Japan that has lasted until now. It was clear that America brought short-term adverse impact to Japan but greatly benefited the country in the long run.
Economically speaking, America overthrew the original economic system of Japan while rebuilding the country’s economy. In terms of destruction, the U.S.-led SCAP government forcibly introduced the Anti-Monopoly Act禁止壟斷法(1947) to disband the zaibatsu and the Land Reform Act土地改革法(1946) to release farmland. By overthrowing the existing Japanese economic system, the occupation authorities disrupted the sources of stable income for the country and caused short-term economic instability. However, in terms of construction, besides lending as much as US$2 billion aiding Japan to revive its economy, America also introduced sweeping reforms through the SCAP government in Japan. They included disbanding the zaibatsu in order to end their monopoly and allow small and medium-sized enterprises to thrive in a fair and free environment, as well as purchasing land from landlords who owned more farmland than what the law allowed and reselling it to tenant farmers at extremely low prices so as to release 80% of Japan’s cultivated land and boost productivity by letting peasants farm their own land. With the generous support of America, Japan’s economy revived quickly as exemplified by its annual economic growth rate reaching 9.9% in the period 1946-51. It was clear that America contributed to Japan’s economic revival while causing destruction to its economy.
Militarily speaking, America curbed Japan’s military build-up in the short term but saved a huge amount of military expenses for Japan in the long run. In the short term, the U.S.-led SCAP government, after occupying Japan in 1945, demilitarized the country and forbade it to maintain an army in order to prevent the recurrence of war. As a result, Japan could only retain its Self-Defense Forces of 100,000 men as well as some warships, and its military capability was too limited for it to start another war. However, in the long term, before the SCAP’s withdrawal, America signed the Mutual Security Pact日美安全保障條約 with Japan in 1951 that guaranteed American military presence in Japan and its responsibility to protect Japan. As a result, there was huge reduction in Japan’s military expenses, which were only 1% of the country’s GDP in the period 1952-69. This allowed the Japanese government to allocate more resources for economic and educational purposes, leaving Japan well positioned for its long-term overall development. It was clear that America forced arms control on Japan in the short term that worked for its overall development in the long run.
Diplomatically speaking, America helped rebuild Japan’s relationships with capitalist countries while bringing about long-standing hostility between Japan and communist countries. Under the control of the U.S.-led SCAP government, post-war Japan was part of the capitalist bloc like America and under strong and long-lasting American diplomatic influence. In terms of rebuilding relationships, America as the middleman convened the San Francisco Conference三藩市會議(1951) and arranged war reparations agreements between Japan and Southeast Asian countries, enabling Japan to establish diplomatic relations with the neighboring countries, including Malaysia and Indonesia that did so in 1957 and 1958 respectively. In addition, with a view to uniting Japan and South Korea to contain the spread of communism in Asia, America had mediated between them since 1951 and arranged throughout 13 years and 8 months seven rounds of talks, which eventually led to the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 1965. In this way, Japan gradually established its relationships with other capitalist countries. In terms of breaking off relationships, America deemed Japan a bridgehead against the spread of communism in Asia and brought about hostility between Japan and communist countries. For example, during the Korean War韓戰(1950-53) and Vietnam War越戰(1961-75), America made Japan its supply base in its two wars against communism, leading to the hostility between Japan and countries such as North Korea, North Vietnam and China. The two sides did not establish any diplomatic relations and remained hostile towards each other before the 1970s. It was clear that America rebuilt Japan’s relationships with other capitalist countries while cutting its ties with communist countries.
Japan’s post-war development was also affected by other factors that were, however, less important than the America factor.
Although international factors also shaped Japan’s post-war development, their importance was not as much as that of the America factor. In economic aspect, the post-war international circumstances greatly worked for Japan’s economic recovery since the confrontation between capitalism and communism led to several battles in Asia, including the Korean War韓戰(1950-53) and Vietnam War越戰(1961-75), which brought about a special procurement boom特需景氣for Japan that allowed the country to make great profits out of munitions and other military supplies and promoted its economic recovery. Meanwhile, in diplomatic aspect, the Cold War led to hostility between capitalist and communist countries and prevented Japan from establishing diplomatic relations with communist countries such as China and the Soviet Union. The long-standing enmity limited Japan’s diplomatic development. However, in terms of causality, it was America that helped Japan by taking advantage of the international circumstances at that time and made things work for its economic development. For example, the Korean War and Vietnam War did not directly benefit Japan and it was America that chose Japan as its supplier, boosted the country’s exports and created the special procurement boom. In addition, it was also the U.S.-led SCAP government that occupied Japan and brought it to the capitalist bloc. Playing an important role in American efforts against communism, Japan was embroiled in the Cold War with its relations with communist countries affected. It was clear that the America factor was more important than the international ones.
Although the Japanese government was also an important factor that affected Japan’s development, it was still less important than the America one. In economic aspect, after the SCAP’s withdrawal, the Japanese government went all out for economic growth and formulated the national policies of becoming a trading nation貿易立國 and ‘Export or die出口第一’. The administration also established organizations such as MITI通商產業省 and Economic Counsel Board經濟審議廳 to work out economic strategies and provide companies with technological support with a view to boosting economic growth. In educational aspect, the Japanese government emphasized education development and constantly increased the budget for education, which increased by 24 times in the period 1950-72. Such emphasis on education allowed Japan to achieve universal junior secondary education and an enrolment rate in senior secondary schools of nearly 90% by the end of the 1960s, greatly promoting education development in Japan. However, in terms of causality, America laid the foundation for economic recovery and allowed the Japanese government to enjoy economic growth in the post-SCAP period. For example, America issued the Nine Principles of Economic Stabilization穩定經濟九項原則(1948) in the SCAP period to help solve problems such as inflation and financial crises of banks in Japan. These efforts allowed the Japanese government to build its economy on such foundation afterwards with development strategies as an export-oriented trading nation. It was clear that the America factor was more important than the Japanese government to Japan’s post-war development.
Although national factors also affected Japan’s post-war development, the America factor was still more important. In economic aspect, the national characteristics of Japanese people also contributed to Japan’s economic recovery. Because of their traditional Bushido spirit and modern emphasis on loyalty and patriotism, Japanese people were willing to follow decisions made by the government and all together devoted to economic development. In addition, their saving habits and courage to invest also sped up the progress of economic recovery, and their oriental-style management system led to a low unemployment rate and harmonious working environment. All these characteristics enabled Japan’s economy to recover quickly after hitting rock bottom. However, in terms of impact, the zaibatsu monopolized Japan’s economy at that time and the overall circumstances prevented Japanese people from fully utilizing their virtues to develop small and medium-sized enterprises, while it was America that created a favorable environment for these enterprises to grow rapidly in the post-war period by enacting the Anti-Monopoly Act 禁止壟斷法to disband the zaibatsu. It was clear that America eliminated factors limiting economic growth and allowed Japanese people to unleash their virtuous national characteristics. Therefore, the America factor was more important.
In conclusion, America greatly influenced Japan in every aspect after the Second World War, be it short term or long term, positive or negative. The America factor was the most important factor that affected Japan’s development the most from 1945 to the 1960s.
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