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原題目題號：DSE-練習卷-Essay-05
冷戰的結束在什麼程度上因戈巴卓夫所致？試解釋你的答案。
戈巴卓夫於1985年成為蘇聯的領導人，其推行的政治、軍事及外交政策對於導致冷戰結束起了舉足輕重的意義，是冷戰結束的最重要因素。其他因素，包括西方的軍事策略、東歐的不滿、蘇聯的經濟問題等均不及戈巴卓夫的貢獻重要。
政治方面，戈巴卓夫的政治改革大大有助冷戰的結束。戈巴卓夫推行開放的政治改革，嘗試將民主、自由等新思維引入蘇聯，並於1990年修改憲法，結束一黨專政，此舉一方面令西方國家對專制的蘇聯改觀，有助緩和冷戰的局面。更甚，戈巴卓夫的改革導致了傳統派的不滿，更發動「八一九事變」(1991年)，解除其職務。雖然政變以失敗告終，但卻大大增強蘇俄與加盟共和國的分離勢力，戈巴卓夫知道難以再維持蘇聯統治，故提出解散蘇聯共產黨的要求，令各共和國紛紛宣布獨立，蘇聯終致於1991年解體。隨著冷戰一方的首領蘇聯解體，美、蘇對立的局面也不復存在，冷戰也宣告落幕。可見，戈巴卓夫的政治改革導致蘇聯解體，令冷戰結束。
軍事方面，戈巴卓夫有助緩和軍事上的緊張局面，使冷戰結束。戈巴卓夫上台後隨即實行改革，嘗試減低軍事支出以重建經濟發展。而減低軍事支出則有助緩和美蘇之間的軍備競賽，如1987年蘇聯為減少導彈開支，與美國達成銷毀中程導彈的《中程導彈裁撤條約》，此舉有助緩和軍備競賽導致的對峙局面。此外，戈巴卓夫的軍事改革更解除了北約與華沙公約的對立，因戈巴卓夫積極推動兩組織的裁軍談判，於1990年簽訂了《歐洲常規裁軍條約》，使22個北約和華約的成員國共同達成裁軍的協定，結束冷戰的軍事對立局面，標誌著冷戰的結束。可見，戈巴卓夫的軍事政策對於冷戰結束實功不可沒。
外交方面，戈巴卓夫積極改善與西方國家的關係，使冷戰結束。為了緩和冷戰的局面，戈巴卓夫於1985年上台後隨即主動改善與西方國家的關係，如於1985年與美國總統列根和英國首相戴卓爾夫人會面，使美、英兩國對其領導的新蘇聯改觀。其後，戈巴卓夫與列根也於1986、1987及1988年進行多次會晤，為緩和兩國的關係及冷戰的局面作出了重大的努力。此外，戈巴卓夫就阿富汗問題作出退讓，於1988年開始撤離於阿富汗的駐軍，有助獲得西方國家的好感。更甚，戈巴卓夫於1989年的馬爾他會議中指出「將冷戰丟進地中海」，與美國總統喬治布殊共同宣布冷戰結束，成為冷戰結束的其中一個重要指標。可見，戈巴卓夫的友好外交態度對於冷戰結束意義凡非。
戈巴卓夫對於冷戰結束極具重要性，其重要性較其他因素大。
其一，西方的軍事策略也是冷戰結束的原因之一。西方國家推行強硬的軍事發展策略，有助迫使蘇聯放棄競爭。因美國於1980年代初掀起了新一輪的軍備競賽，提出了「星戰計劃」(1983年)，與北約的成員國聯手研發太空攔截技術，希望藉此拖垮蘇聯的經濟，令其投放更多資金於太空爭奪的範疇，加深經濟問題。西方的軍事策略終使蘇聯承擔沉重的經濟壓力，於1980年代中後期開展了裁軍的談判，更於1988年撤回蘇聯駐阿富汗的軍隊。因此，西方強硬的軍事政策迫使蘇聯作出退讓，成為冷戰緩和及結束的原因之一。
然而，戈巴卓夫的重要性大於西方強硬的軍事策略。就影響力而言，西方強硬的軍事策略往往導致惡性的軍備競賽，例如美國於1952年研發氫氣彈後，蘇聯也不惶多讓，於1953年研發出氫氣彈，結果使局面更趨緊張。相反，戈巴卓夫的態度對於改善兩大陣營的關係起了積極的作用，其並不像過往的蘇聯領導人，與西方國家進行惡性的軍備競賽，相反更主動於1988年撤離駐阿富汗的軍隊，以及推動裁軍協定的簽訂，最終使冷戰在戈巴卓夫的推動得以結束。可見，西方國家的軍事策略並非冷戰結束的最重要因素，相反戈巴卓夫的政策才是。
其二，東歐的不滿也是冷戰結束的原因之一。由於蘇聯對東歐國家採取嚴厲的控制政策，使東歐人民過往失去言論、集會及出版等自由，如1968年捷克嘗試推行民主化改革時(「布拉格之春」)，隨即被蘇聯以軍隊及坦克鎮壓。因此，強硬的監控政策早已使東歐人民出現不滿，如1956年匈牙利爆發革命，希望脫離蘇聯統治。及至1980年代末，東歐各國更出現大規模的遊行、示威，如1988年波蘭的全國大罷工、羅馬尼亞的騷動等，最終使東歐共產政權相繼倒台，東歐國家對蘇聯也產生了極大的離心。結果，東歐的變天也下啟了蘇聯於1991年的瓦解，最終使冷戰結束。
然而，戈巴卓夫的重要性大於東歐的不滿。就影響力而言，東歐的不滿並不足以導致蘇聯的解體，因為在戈巴卓夫上台之前，東歐國家的全部示威、暴動均被蘇聯輕易鎮壓，包括1956年的匈牙利革命等。然而，戈巴卓夫上台後，對東歐採取較寬鬆的政策，如減少於東歐地區的駐軍及經濟控制，更默許衛星國的「自由化運動」，結果才使東歐共產政權相繼倒台。東歐的解放象徵蘇聯放棄於軍事上與西方的對立，冷戰結束已成趨勢。可見，戈巴卓夫的政策導致了東歐變天，故更具重要性。
其三，蘇聯的經濟問題也是冷戰結束的原因之一。基於發展軍備的沉重開支，使蘇聯經濟發展緩慢，例如1979年時的國防開支就高達1480億美元，佔國民生產總值的16%，大大減慢了蘇聯的經濟發展。相反，資本主義陣營國家的經濟發展迅速，尤以西德及法國等國家的經濟增長最為明顯。結果，蘇聯及東歐人民質疑共產主義經濟體系的成效，動搖了蘇聯的統治。也由於沉重的經濟負擔，迫使蘇聯需要放寬對東歐國家的監控，最終導致1980年代末東歐變天，成為蘇聯瓦解及冷戰結束的原因之一。
然而，戈巴卓夫的重要性大於蘇聯的經濟問題。就因果關係而言，即使蘇聯的經濟發展相對較為緩慢，但1981-85年國民收入也能維持3.2%的增長。然而，至戈巴卓夫上台後，其改革使經濟問題迅速惡化，因其著重重工業的發展，對於輕工業方面的投入欠奉，使日用品、消費品短缺，市民搶購成風，造成「麵包荒」、「肥皂荒」等混亂不斷，通貨膨脹也隨之出現，國民收入更於1991年下跌15%，導致其需要解散蘇聯，以減低蘇聯控制其他加盟共和國的龐大開支。可見，戈巴卓夫惡化了原有的經濟問題，有著更大的重要性。
總括而言，戈巴卓夫的政治、軍事及外交政策是導致冷戰結束的最重要因素，西方的軍事策略、東歐的不滿及蘇聯的經濟問題等因素的重要性不及之。
To what extent was the end of the Cold War due to Mikhail Gorbachev? Explain your view.
Gorbachev became the Soviet leader in 1985. His political, military and diplomatic policies were the most important factor in leading to the end of the Cold War. Other factors, such as western military strategy, discontent of Eastern Europe and economic problems of the USSR, were less important than Gorbachev.
In political aspect, Gorbachev’s political reform contributed to the end of the Cold War. Gorbachev carried out political reforms to achieve Glasnost(openness) 開放. Democratic and liberal ideas were introduced to the USSR and the constitution was revised in 1990 ending one-party dictatorship. These changed the Western impression of the autocratic Soviet Union and helped relieve the tension of the Cold War. The reform of Gorbachev led to discontent of conservatives. They launched the August Coup八一九事變(1991) to dismiss Gorbachev. Although it ended in failure, the coup increased the influence of separatism among the USSR and its republics加盟共和國. Gorbachev knew very well that it was impossible to sustain the Soviet rule, thus proposing the dissolution of the Communist Party. Many Soviet republics then declared independence; the USSR was officially dissolved in 1991. Because of the dissolution of the USSR, the leader of the communist bloc, the confrontation between the US and the USSR was not existed anymore, leading to the end of the Cold War. It showed that Gorbachev’s reform contributed to the dissolution of the USSR and ended the Cold War.
In military aspect, Gorbachev eased up the hostile situation in military, leading to the end of the Cold War. After the rise of Gorbachev, he carried out reforms right away to save military expenditures for economic reconstruction. The reduction in military expenditures helped slow down the arms race between the US and USSR. For example, the USSR reduced expenditures on missile in 1987 and signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty(INF)中程導彈裁撤條約 with the US to destroy missiles, which relieved their confrontation over arms race. Besides, his military reforms stopped the confrontation between the NATO北約 and the Warsaw Pact華沙公約 as Gorbachev eagerly urged disarmament negotiation and finally contributed to the signing of the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty(CFE)歐洲常規裁軍條約(1990) among 22 members of the NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The end of confrontation between NATO and the Warsaw Pact marked the end of the Cold War. It showed that the contribution of Gorbachev was undeniable.
In diplomatic aspect, Gorbachev actively improved relations with western countries, leading to the end of the Cold War. In order to ease up the situation of the Cold War, Gorbachev was eager to improve relations with western countries after he rose to power in 1985. He met with US President Reagan列根 and Margaret Thatcher戴卓爾夫人, Prime Minister of Britain in 1985, which gave the US and Britain a new impression of the USSR under his leadership. After that, Gorbachev met with Reagan several times in 1986, 1987 and 1988 and made an effort to improve their relations and reduce tense situation of Cold War. Besides, Gorbachev made a concession on Afghanistan阿富汗 issues by withdrawing the Soviet army since 1988, which gave a favorable impression to western countries. Moreover, he mentioned “The Cold War will be dumped down to the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.” in the Malta Summit馬爾他會議(1989) and announced the end of the Cold War with US President George Bush, which was one of the indications of the end of the Cold War. It showed that the friendly diplomatic attitude of Gorbachev contributed to the end of the Cold War.
Gorbachev was important in leading to end of the Cold War. It was more important than other factors.
Firstly, western military strategy also led to the end of the Cold War. The West adopted a tough military strategy that forced the USSR to abandon competition. The US started a new round of arms race in the early 1980s by introducing the Strategic Defense Initiative(SDI)星戰計劃(1983) in which NATO members cooperated in developing space interception technology. They hoped the USSR would invest a lot in space rivalry and intensify its economic problems, and eventually wreck the Soviet economy. As the military strategy of the West placed heavy economic burden on the USSR, it had to start negotiation on disarmament in the mid and late 1980s and even retreat its army stationed in Afghanistan阿富汗(1988). Therefore, the tough military strategy of the West forced the USSR to give way, which was one of the reasons for the easing of tensions and the end of the Cold War.
However, Gorbachev was more important than the tough military strategy by western countries. In terms of impact, the tough military strategy by western countries usually prompted vicious arms race; for example, the US had invented hydrogen bomb氫氣彈 in 1952, the USSR followed in 1953, making the situation hostile. In contrast, the attitude of Gorbachev took an active role in improving the relationship between the two blocs. Unlike previous Soviet leaders, Gorbachev did not carry out vicious armaments race with western countries. On the contrary, he withdrew the Soviet army stationed in Afghanistan阿富汗 and facilitated the signing of disarmament agreements. The Cold War ended finally because of the efforts of Gorbachev. It showed that the western military strategy was not the most important factor in leading to the end of the Cold War, but the policies of Gorbachev was.
Secondly, discontent of Eastern Europe was one of the reasons in leading to the end of the Cold War. As the USSR imposed strict control over Eastern European countries, people could not enjoy freedom of speech, assembly and the press. For example, when Czechoslovakia attempted to carry out democratic reforms (Prague Spring布拉格之春) (1968), they were suppressed by the army and tanks. Thus, the strict surveillance policy had already caused discontent of Eastern Europeans; for example, the Hungarian Revolution匈牙利革命(1956) broke out and they hoped to break away from the USSR. In the late 1980s, more large-scale protests and demonstrations took place in different Eastern European countries such as the general strike (1988) in Poland波蘭 and the disturbances in Romania羅馬尼亞, which led to the successive downfall of communist governments in Eastern Europe. Also, Eastern European countries inclined to separate from the USSR. As a result, the democratic movements in Eastern Europe marked the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 and the Cold War ended.
However, Gorbachev was more important than the discontent of Eastern Europe. Regarding influence, the discontent of Eastern Europe was limited to the dissolution of the USSR. Before the rise of Gorbachev, all the demonstrations and riots of Eastern European countries were suppressed easily by the USSR, including the Hungarian Revolution匈牙利革命(1956). However, in terms of cause-effect relationship, after Gorbachev rose to power, he adopted relaxed policies such as reducing station troops and economic control over Eastern Europe, conniving at the democratic movements自由化運動 of satellite states. The communist governments of Eastern Europe collapsed one by one. As the liberation of Eastern Europe symbolized that the USSR withdrew from military confrontation with the West, the end of the Cold War was expected soon. It showed that the policies of Gorbachev were more important, which led to democratic movements in Eastern Europe.
Thirdly, economic problems of the USSR led to the end of the Cold War. Because of heavy financial burden in developing military weapons, the economic development of the USSR slowed down. For example, the national expenditure was US$148 billion, which accounted for 16% of the gross national product, slowing down the economic development of the USSR. In contrast, the economic developments of capitalist countries were rapid, Western Germany and France especially. As a result, the effectiveness of communist economic system of the USSR and Eastern European were doubted, which threatened the USSR’s ruling. Besides, due to heavy financial burden, the USSR had to relax its control over Eastern European countries, leading to the democratic movements in the late 1980s. It was one of the reasons for the dissolution of the USSR and the end of the Cold War.
However, Gorbachev was more important than the economic problems of the USSR. In terms of cause-effect relationship, although the economic development of the USSR was slow, its annual growth in national income still maintained in 3.2% in 1981-85. However, after Gorbachev rose to power, his reforms worsened the economic problems. Since he over-emphasized heavy industry and ignored the development of light industry, thus resulting in the lack of daily necessary and consumer goods. Shopping rushes became a common practice, which led to disorder such as bread shortage麵包荒, and soap shortages肥皂荒 and inflation followed. National income dropped 15% in 1991. Hence, Gorbachev had to dissolute the USSR so as to reduce the huge expenditure of controlling other republics. It showed that Gorbachev was more important because he worsened the original economic problems.
In conclusion, the political, military and diplomatic policies of Gorbachev were the most important factor in causing the end of the Cold War. Other factors, such as western military strategy, discontent of Eastern Europe and economic problems of the USSR, were less important than Gorbachev.
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