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第二次世界大戰結束過程中，國際間簽訂的主要協議在什麼程度上締造了新的國際秩序？
定義 「國際秩序」指各國在處理國際事務中所運行的準則和行為規範，繼而形成的世界格局。 // 立場及架構 而二次大戰後期簽訂的國際協議在很大程度上締造了新的國際秩序，包括美蘇主導的國際格局、蘇聯控制東歐的秩序、反法西斯的秩序、賠款和限制軍力的秩序、國際協作的新秩序等。
主旨句 二次大戰後期所簽訂的國際協議締造了美、蘇主導的新國際秩序。 // 項目B 二次世界大戰前，美國基於實行孤立政策而盡量避免接觸國際事務，而蘇聯就因為是共產主義而受到西方國家的孤立，此時期的國際事務由英、法主導。 // 項目A 然而，至戰爭後期的會議，由於美國積極介入會議以對抗共產蘇聯的擴張，而蘇聯也因為對於戰爭有著重大貢獻而影響力大增。雖然英國於戰時會議中仍與美、蘇作為「三巨頭」，共同制定對策，但事實上，英國的國力已經受到二次大戰的重創，同時，法國被德國所攻佔，其流亡政府並無參與主要的會議。因此，在此消彼長的形勢下，美、蘇取替了英、法的地位，更分別成為資本主義及共產主義陣營的領袖，例如美國推行馬歇爾計劃(1948年)以支援西歐的經濟重建；蘇聯控制了東歐多個衛星國，成為主導世界的超級強國。 // 對比(~20%) 相比之下，就主持國際事務的國家而言，二次大戰前的國際事務由英、法所主導，但戰時會議期間，美、蘇發揮著重大的影響力，並取替了英、法於戰前的地位，奠定了往後美、蘇主導國際事務的新秩序。
二次大戰後期的國際條約確立了蘇聯控制東歐的新國際秩序。二次大戰前，由於歐洲國家恐懼蘇聯的共產主義會顛覆歐洲資本主義國家的政權，因此極力圍堵蘇聯，使蘇聯在受孤立的情況下未能將影響力擴至東歐的國家。然而，至二次大戰後期，蘇聯在反攻德國時乘勢擴張共產主義，扶植東歐各國的共產勢力，並於戰時會議時積極加強其於東歐的控制，例如於1943年德黑蘭會議中，由於蘇聯於史太林格勒戰役中擊潰德軍有功，加上英、美等國希望爭取蘇聯於對德戰爭結束後盡快加入對日的戰爭，因此蘇聯與英、美雙方達成共識，蘇聯於戰後獲得部分波蘭的領土及東普魯士作為報酬，結果使蘇聯對東歐的支配大大提高。於戰後，波蘭、捷克等多國東歐國家都成為蘇聯的衛星國，受其支配。相比之下，就東歐秩序的掌控而言，二次大戰前蘇聯的勢力並未能有效擴展至東歐，但由於蘇聯對於東線戰爭的貢獻甚大，因此使其於戰時會議中有更大的話語權，最終乘機擴張勢力，確立了其控制東歐的新秩序。
二次大戰後期的國際協定確立了反法西斯的新秩序。二次大戰前，法西斯主義未有受到壓止，更肆虐歐、亞洲，例如法西斯主義的墨索里尼於1922年在意大利上台；納粹主義的希特拉也於1933年取得政權，另外，日本軍國主義也於1930年代崛起並取替了政黨政府。此時期西方國家恐懼共產主義多於法西斯主義，因此未有遏止法西斯主義的擴張。然而，二次大戰後期所簽訂的國際協議確立了反法西斯主義的新秩序，因同盟國恐懼法西斯主義會再次挑起戰爭的爆發，因此積極為戰敗國剷除法西斯，例如於《波茨坦協定》(1945年)中規定建立民主以剷除納粹黨。及後，於對意大利及日本等戰敗國的條約時也明確規定需要解散法西斯組織及審判相關人士，奠定了反法西斯的新秩序。相比之下，就法西斯主義的發展而言，二次大戰前各國未有壓制法西斯主義的發展，但對於同盟國而言，二次大戰是一場反法西斯的戰爭，因此於戰後積極剷除法西斯主義，締造了反法西斯的新秩序，使法西斯主義於戰後式微。
二次大戰後期的國際協議締造了賠款及限制軍力的新秩序。過往的戰後條約均規定戰敗國必須以金錢作為賠償，並且允許戰敗國保留一定數額的軍隊，例如1919年的《凡爾賽條約》就規定德國需要賠償330億美元的天文數字，並且將陸軍人數削減至10萬人。然而，至二次大戰後期的國際會議，同盟國為免戰敗國再次發動戰爭，因此於賠款及限制軍力方面均出現了新的轉變，例如在對德國的《波茨坦協定》中允許德國以工業設施作為賠款，以減低德國的不滿，同時，也為德國實行非軍事化政策，拆除所有軍事生產設施及武器，避免德國再次發動戰爭。往後，同盟國在對日本的安排上也如是，為日本進行非軍事化政策，禁止日本擁有軍隊，並於及後的《三藩市條約》(1952年)中允許日本以商品及勞動力作為賠償。相比之下，就戰敗賠償而言，過往對戰敗國的舊有秩序是以金錢作為賠款，並且允許戰敗國保留少量的軍隊，但至二次大戰後期的國際會議，同盟國允許戰敗國以商品、設施等作為賠償，同時實行非軍事化，徹底解除戰敗國的武裝，軟硬兼備地減低戰敗國再次發動戰爭的可能性，締造出賠款及限制軍力方面的新秩序。
二次大戰後期的國際協議締造了國際社、經協作的新秩序。二次大戰前，雖然國聯的成立有助推動各國在社會及經濟方面的合作，例如合力打擊國際販毒及奴隸買賣等，然而，這些合作的參與國為數不多，而且集中於歐洲國家為主，例如「女性合法地位研究委員會」的所有成員均來自歐洲國家，缺乏其他地區的國家參與，反映二次大戰前的國際協作較為鬆散，而且集中於歐洲國家。然而，至二次大戰期間的會議時，美、英等國希望成立一個新的國際組織，同時透過該組織使各國建立一個互惠互利的合作關係，以減少衝突的出現，因此於1945年雅爾達會議中確定成立聯合國。往後，聯合國對於促進各國於社會、經濟方面的協作起了劃時代的意義，例如設立糧農組織以協助提高糧食產量、利用世界銀行借貸予貧困國家，結果大大促進了國際社會於社、經範疇的合作，全球大多國家亦參與在內。相比之下，就國際合作而言，二次大戰前的各國在社、經方面進行的協作較為鬆散，而且以歐洲國家為核心，但至二次大戰後期確認成立聯合國作為新的維和機構，大大加強了各國於社、經方面的合作，並將合作擴展至全球各地。
雖然二次大戰後期的國際協議在很大程度上締造了新的國際秩序，但亦有小程度上是維持了舊有的秩序。
二次大戰後期的國際協議未有改變戰敗割地及歸還曾侵略的土地的舊有秩序。二次大戰前，戰敗國需要接受割地及歸還曾經侵略的土地的安排，例如於《凡爾賽條約》中要求德國割出約13%的領土，包括把阿爾薩斯及洛林歸還予法國、北什列斯威給予丹麥等，以作為懲罰。及後，至二次大戰後期的國際協議中，上述舊有的國際秩序未有出現改變，同盟國仍然大幅削減戰敗國的土地以削弱戰敗國的國力，例如於開羅會議(1943年)中已經規定日本需要歸還1894年侵略的中國領土，及後又於德黑蘭會議(1943年)中亦規定德國將東普魯士給予蘇聯。及後，至戰後對意大利、芬蘭等的安排也同樣，於1947年簽訂的《巴黎和約》中規定需要將曾侵略的土地予以歸還。相比之下，就戰敗後的土地安排而言，戰敗國需要割地及歸還曾侵略的土地是懲罰戰敗國的舊有國際秩序，此一秩序於二次大戰前一直沿用，至二次大戰後期的國際會議中亦繼續使用此一安排，削減戰敗國的土地及迫使戰敗國交出曾侵略的土地。
總括而言，二次大戰後期的國際協議出現了許多新的安排，摒棄了舊有的模式，締造了很多新的國際秩序，因此在很大程度上締造了新的國際秩序。
To what extent did the settlements that ended the Second World War establish a new international order?
‘International order’ 國際秩序 refers to a standard formed by the behaviors among countries in the international community. To a large extent, the settlements that ended the Second World War establish a new international order. The new international order included the domination of the US and USSR, the gaining control of the USSR over Eastern Europe, anti-fascism, reparations and restriction on military strength, as well as the order on international cooperation.
The settlements that ended the WW2 prompted the domination of the US and USSR in the world. Before WW2, international affairs were mainly dominated by Britain and France. The US minimized her interference in the international affairs due to the adoption of isolationist policy孤立政策. On the other hand, the USSR also did not participate much in those issues due to the isolation of the West towards communism共產主義. However, the US actively intervened in the post-war meetings in the hope of counterbalancing the spread of communism. Moreover, the USSR became more influential with the immense contribution during the war. On a contrary, the national strength of Britain was greatly damaged in the WW2 although she was one of the Big Three三巨頭 which was responsible for formulating mutual policies with the US and USSR. At the same time, France was invaded by Germany. The government in exile流亡政府 did not participate in the major conferences. Thus, under such situation, the US and USSR took the roles of Britain and France. They even became the leaders of the capitalist and communist blocs respectively. For instance, the US initiated the Marshall Plan馬歇爾計劃(1948) which supported the economic construction of Western Europe; the USSR took control over numerous satellites衛星國 in Eastern Europe. In comparison, with respect to countries managing international affairs, they were dominated by Britain and France before WW2, but the US and the USSR showed their strong influence at wartime conferences and replaced the roles of Britain and France, consolidating their domination in the world.
The settlements that ended the WW2 established the new order of Eastern Europe being controlled by the USSR. Before the WW2, European countries feared that communism would hinder the capitalist regime, and hence they worked hard in containing the USSR. Influence to the Eastern European countries was contained under the isolation. However, by the end of the WW2, the USSR successfully spread communism when she counterattacked Germany. She assisted the rose of communism in Eastern European countries, and actively increased her control over them in the war-time conferences. For instance, in the Tehran Conference德黑蘭會議 held in 1943, as the USSR gained credit in the Battle of Stalingrad史太林格勒戰役, and countries including Britain and the US hoped that the she could join the war against Japan as soon as possible. So, a consensus was reached among the three countries which stated that the USSR could obtain part of Poland波蘭 and whole of East Prussia東普魯士 as compensation. As a result, the USSR gained even greater span of control over Eastern Europe. After WW2, Eastern European states such as Poland波蘭 and Czechoslovakia捷克 became the satellites of the USSR. In comparison, in terms of control over Eastern Europe, the power of the USSR could not effectively extend to Eastern Europe before WW2. But as the USSR contributed a lot in the war on the eastern front, she had more bargaining power in the conferences. Eventually, she seized the opportunities to extend her influence, and established the new order of Eastern Europe being controlled by the USSR.
International order of anti-fascism was established by the end of WW2. Before WW2, fascism法西斯主義 was not being suppressed. Instead, it prevailed in Europe and Asia. For instance, in 1922, Mussolini, who supported Fascism, gained power in Italy; on the other hand, in 1933, Hitler, supporting Nazism, seized power in Germany. Also, militarists in Japan rose to power and replaced the party politicians in the 1930s. At that time, the Western countries feared for communism was much greater than that of Fascism, and hence they did not put much efforts in slowing down its development. However, as the Allied fear that fascism would lead to another war, the international agreements made by the end of WW2 did establish the new order of anti-fascism. For instance, the Potsdam Agreement波茨坦協定(1945) stated the establishment of a democratic state and the eradication of Nazi Party. After that, treaties signed with other defeated nations such as Italy意大利 and Japan日本 stated clearly the elimination of Fascist organizations and the imprisonment of related parties. International order of anti-fascism was hence established. In comparison, in terms of development of Fascism, countries did not restrict the development of Fascism before WW2. However, WW2 was an anti-fascism war in the eyes of the Allied. Hence, after the WW2, they actively eradicated Fascism, created a new international order of anti-fascism, and eventually reduced the scale of Fascism.
A new international order on reparations and restriction on military strength was established by the end of WW2. The previous post-war agreements showed the necessity of using monetary terms as reparations; it also allowed the defeated nations to retain certain amount of troops. For instance, in the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約 signed in 1919, Germany was forced to pay an indemnity of USD$33 billion, and to reduce the army size to 100,000 soldiers. However, in the international conferences held by the end of WW2, the Allied made some changes in reparations and restriction on military strength. The reason of such move was to prevent the defeated nations from initiating wars again. For instance, Germany was allowed to pay war reparations in terms of industrial facilities in Potsdam Treaty波茨坦協定, so as to reduce her discontent. At the same time, demilitarization was introduced too. Military production facilities and weapons were destroyed in order to prevent her from starting a war. The same arrangements were implemented to Japan as well. Japan was demilitarized, banned from having her own troops, and allowed to pay her indemnity in goods and labor under the signing of Treaty of San Francisco三藩市條約(1952). In comparison, in terms of reparations, under the previous international order, money was the only means of reparations. Defeated nations were also allowed to retain a small amount of troops. But in the international conferences held by the end of WW2, the Allied allowed the defeated nations to repay their indemnity in forms of goods and facilities. At the same time, demilitarization was implemented which thoroughly eradicated their arms. It could minimize the possibility of the restart of war. So, a new international order on reparations and restriction on military strength was established by the end of WW2.
The new order of international cooperation was established by the end of WW2. Before the WW2, although the establishment of the League of Nations facilitated cooperation in the social and economic aspects, such as curbing global drug trafficking and slave trade problems, the number of participating countries was limited. Also, most of the participating states came from Europe. For instance, all members of The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women女性合法地位研究委員會 were European states, reflecting the international cooperation before WW2 was rather loose and concentrated. However, in the international conferences by the end of WW2, the US and Britain would like to establish a new peacekeeping body. At the same time building a mutual beneficial relationship through this organization and eventually reduced the occurrence of conflicts. Hence, the establishment of the United Nations was confirmed in the Yalta Conference. After that, the United Nations contributed a lot in fostering the cooperation in the social and economic aspects. For instance, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations糧農組織worked to increase food production, the World Bank世界銀行 granted loans to poor countries. As a result, the social and economic cooperation in the international community was greatly fostered, and most of the countries were included too. In comparison, in terms of international cooperation, the social and economic cooperation of countries before WW2 was rather loose, and it was concentrated in Europe. However, after WW2, the United Nations was recognized as the new peace-keeping body. It greatly strengthened the social and economic cooperation among countries, and cooperation was extended to places all over the world.
Although the settlements that ended the Second World War establish a new international order to a large extent, the previous order was to a small extent preserved.
By the end of WW2, the defeated nations still had to cede territories and give up the seized land. Before WW2, defeated nations had to accept the arrangements of ceding land and returning invaded territories. For instance, Germany had to forgo 13% of land as punishment in the Treaty of Versailles凡爾賽條約, including Alsace-Lorraine阿爾薩斯及洛林 to France and Schleswig-Holstein北什列斯威 to Denmark丹麥. Later, in the international conferences held by the end of WW2, such international order remained unchanged. The Allied still greatly reduced the territories of defeated nations so as to limit their national strength. For instance, in Cairo Conference開羅會議(1943), Japan had to return all the territories seized from China since 1894. Also, in the Teheran Conference德黑蘭會議(1943), Germany was forced to forgo East Prussia to the USSR. Such arrangements were applied to Italy and Finland芬蘭 as well. They had to return the invaded land as stated in the Paris Peace Treaty巴黎和約 signed in 1947. In comparison, in terms of post-war territorial changes, the ceding territories and giving up the sized land of defeated nations were still implemented before and after WW2. Such international order remained unchanged. Territories were given up and invaded lands were forced to return.
To sum up, numerous settlements that ended the Second World War had established a new international order. It abandoned the previous arrangements and hence, to a large extent, a new international order was established.
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