以下內容乃K.W.Ho之補習教材，於課堂教授，內容乃配合K.W.Ho之答題方法及風格所製作，同時內容可能有錯誤之處以供在課堂上糾正。非補習學生在未有得到課堂教學的情況下錯誤使用，恕不負責，同學請敬請留意。
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評估1900-14年間旨在維持歐洲和平所作的不同嘗試的成效。
架構 20世紀初，列強為了維持和平作出了許多不同的嘗試，如利用同盟制度﹑召開和平會議﹑舉行裁軍會議﹑軍事上的抗衡及簽訂諒解條約。 // 立場然而，此等嘗試大多失效，更導致了第一次世界大戰的爆發。以下，將逐一闡述。
主旨句 其一，列強利用同盟制度維持和平的方法最終招致全面的戰爭。 // 方法列強為防止戰爭的爆發，故紛紛組成同盟，加強己方陣營的實力，防止受到他國的攻擊，如三國協約的成立(1907)使之能與三國同盟(1882)互相抗衡，形成雙方不能開戰的局面。 // 成效然而，同盟制度的意義在於全面和平或全面戰爭，當衝突未能引發戰爭時，便能維持歐洲的全面和平，但當衝突演變至戰爭層面時，同盟制度便成為擴大衝突的催化劑。於1914年塞拉耶佛危機爆發後，亦正正因為同盟制度，令德國大力支持其同盟奧匈；法國及英國也傾向支持俄國，終致地區性戰爭轉化為世界性戰爭。 // 小結可見，列強利用同盟制度維持和平的嘗試是失效的。
其二，列強召開和平會議以解決問題的方式也未能維持和平。列強為解決衝突而召開了數次和平會議，試圖利用會議方式以解決糾紛，如為解決第一次摩洛哥危機的阿爾及西勒會議(1906)；為解決第一次巴爾幹戰爭而召開的倫敦會議(1913)。然而，會議方式未能有效調停糾紛，因和平會議由較強勢的一方所主宰，而列強為加強自身的利益而剝削失勢的國家，故會議未能令所有國家感到滿意，更因會議所遺留下來的問題而使衝突再次爆發，如1906年阿爾及西勒會議後，由於法國取得摩洛哥的大部分利益，反之德國未有得益，故令德國於1911年挑起第二次摩洛哥危機。另外，於第一次巴爾幹戰爭後召開倫敦會議未成功調停巴爾幹小國的領土利益，終導致數月後爆發第二次巴爾幹戰爭。可見，會議方式未能取得成效。
其三，列強舉行裁軍會議以緩和軍備競賽的嘗試亦告失敗。列強為緩和軍備競賽，以締造和平的氣氛，曾經於1907年召開了第二次海牙裁軍會議，共有44個國家參與。雖然裁軍會議有助規定戰爭安排，如善待戰俘﹑開火前必須經過正式的宣戰。但對於軍備上，會議並未有達致實質的裁減規定，會議更因德國對英國強烈支持縮減海軍的意見抱有猜忌，最終未能達成任何裁軍共識。更於1907年裁軍會議後，英﹑德展開了更激烈的無畏艦競賽，英國更以2比1海軍政策回應德國的無畏艦擴張，使國際氣氛更加緊張。可見，裁軍會議的方法也未能取得預期的成效。
其四，列強希望透過強化軍力及軍事合作維持和平的嘗試也欠缺成效。列強試圖透過加強軍備以達致勢力均衡，形成「武裝起來的和平」局面，如法﹑俄加強陸軍的裝備及數量，以令德國陸軍不能一國獨大。另外，列強也達成地區性的防守軍事協議，如1912年的英法海軍協定中，英國負責防守法國海岸及英倫海峽；法國則負責防守地中海。然而，強化軍事反導致衝突惡化，因軍備競賽使各國為作戰做好準備，如德國的施里芬計劃以法國及俄國為假想敵，並最終於塞拉耶佛危機爆發後實行，使衝突迅速成為戰爭。另外，1912年的英法海軍協定是主張以軍事行動而非外交方式處理威脅，使英國擔心德國破壞英倫海峽的安全而對德國宣戰，反使戰爭擴大化。可見，軍事上的抗衡反使衝突惡化。
雖然列強於1900-14年間維持和平的方法大多失敗，但以諒解方式處理糾紛則能取得成效。列強為調停殖民地糾紛而達成諒解協定，如法國及意大利於1900年達成法意諒解，法國承認意大利於北非的黎波里的利益；意大利則承認法國於摩洛哥的利益。此外，法國及英國也於1904年達成殖民地諒解，法國承認英國於埃及的利益；英國則承認法國於摩洛哥的利益。殖民地諒解的簽訂大大減低了列強間的利益衝突，法意諒解﹑英法諒解及英俄諒解成功調停了殖民地糾紛，更使列強關係靠攏，對於維持和平起了不可忽視的作用。因此，諒解方式有效調解了列強的殖民地糾紛，對維持和平起了一定的作用。
總括而言，上述方法中只有諒解方式能取得一定的成效，反之，其他嘗試不但未得達到預期目的，更導致了第一次世界大戰的爆發。
Assess the effectiveness of various attempts to maintain peace in Europe in the period 1900-14.
In the early 20th century, powers carried out various attempts to maintain peace such as alliance system, peace conferences, disarmament conferences, military confrontation and entente agreements. However, the effectiveness of most of them was limited, thus resulting in WW1. This essay will assess the effectiveness of the above-mentioned attempts.
Firstly, powers adopted alliance system to maintain peace, but it led to world war. In order to avoid breaking out of war, powers formed alliances to consolidate the strength of their own camp and prevent other countries from attacking. For example, the formation of the Triple Entente三國協約(1907) counteracted the Triple Alliance三國同盟(1882). Thus both camps could not declare war easily. However, alliance system implies a total peace or total war. Only when conflicts were not serious enough to trigger war, total peace in Europe could be maintained. But when conflicts escalated into war, alliance system would serve as the catalyst for conflicts. After the 1914 Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機, owing to the alliance system, Germany offered full support to its ally Austria-Hungary; France and Britain also sided with Russia. Thus, a local war evolved into a world war. It showed that the alliance system failed to maintain peace.
Secondly, powers held peace conferences to settle problems, but it failed to maintain peace. To settle conflicts, European powers held several peace conferences, including the Algeciras Conference阿爾及西勒會議(1906) on the First Moroccan Crisis第一次摩洛哥危機 and the London Conference倫敦會議(1913) on the First Balkan War第一次巴爾幹戰爭. However, the method of holding peace conference failed to solve conflicts. As peace conferences were usually dominated by the superior and they would deprive the inferior countries of their rights for their own interests, therefore not all countries would be satisfied with the results of such conference. The problems left behind would result in another conflict. After 1906 Algeciras Conference, as France acquired most of the interests in Morocco but Germany did not, thus provoked Second Moroccan Crisis第二次摩洛哥危機 in 1911. Besides, the London Conference failed to mediate among Balkan nations regarding territorial interests after the First Balkan War, and hence led to the Second Balkan War第二次巴爾幹戰爭after a few months. It showed that holding peace conferences failed to maintain peace.
Thirdly, powers held disarmament conferences to reduce armaments race, but it failed to maintain peace. In order to reduce armaments race and create a peaceful atmosphere, powers held the Second Hague Conference第二次海牙裁軍會議(1907) with 44 countries attending. Although the disarmament conference helped specify war arrangements such as to treat war prisoner well, and declare war officially before opening fire, these conferences did not achieve actual regulation of reduction in armaments. The conference even achieved no disarmament consensus as Germany was suspicious of the British suggestion of reducing the navy. Moreover, after the Second Hague Conference, Britain and Germany started a fiercer competition in building dreadnoughts無畏艦, intensifying the international situation. It showed that the effectiveness of disarmament conferences was limited.
Fourthly, powers strengthened their military and adopted military cooperation in order to maintain peace, but it failed. European powers strengthened their military and armaments to reach a balance of power, resulted in “an armed peace” 「武裝起來的和平」. For example, France and Russia expanded their armies and armaments, thus the German army could not predominate. Besides, powers reached local defensive military agreements such as the Anglo-French Naval Agreement英法海軍協定 of 1912, which stated that Britain would defend the French coast and English Channel while France would be responsible for the defense in Mediterranean Sea. However, powers strengthened military which worsened conflicts. Armaments race prepared countries for war. For example, German Schlieffen Plan施里芬計劃, which saw France and Russia as imaginary enemies, implemented after the Sarajevo Incident塞拉耶佛危機 and turned conflicts into war. Besides, the 1912 Anglo-French Naval Agreement favored military acts rather than diplomatic means to deal with threats, which worried Britain that Germany would harm the safety of English Channel, thus declaring war on Germany and enlarging the scale of war. It showed that military confrontation worsened conflicts.
Despite the fact that most of the attempts at keeping peace failed during 1900-1914, the method of entente agreements solved conflicts effectively. European powers reached agreements to mediate colonial disputes, for example, the signing of Franco-Italian Entente法意諒解 in 1900 that France recognized the interests of Italy in Tripoli in North Africa北非的黎波里 and Italy recognized that of France in Morocco摩洛哥. Besides, France and Britain signed an Entente in 1904, recognizing the interest of Britain in Egypt埃及 and that of France in Morocco摩洛哥. Colonial agreements had greatly lessened conflicts over interests. The Franco-Italian Entente法意諒解, Anglo-French Entente英法諒解 and Anglo-Russian Entente英俄諒解succeeded in colonial mediation and drew powers closer, which brought about undoubted effect on peace-keeping. Thus, the method of entente agreements effectively mediated colonial conflicts among powers and maintained peace.
In conclusion, only entente agreements were effective. Other attempts failed to maintain peace and even led to WW1.
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